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Two loops a, b in a torus.. In mathematics, a loop in a topological space X is a continuous function f from the unit interval I = [0,1] to X such that f(0) = f(1). In other words, it is a path whose initial point is equal to its terminal point.
In general, any infinite series is the limit of its partial sums. For example, an analytic function is the limit of its Taylor series, within its radius of convergence. = =. This is known as the harmonic series. [6]
Augustin-Louis Cauchy in 1821, [6] followed by Karl Weierstrass, formalized the definition of the limit of a function which became known as the (ε, δ)-definition of limit. The modern notation of placing the arrow below the limit symbol is due to G. H. Hardy, who introduced it in his book A Course of Pure Mathematics in 1908. [7]
For a sample set, the maximum function is non-smooth and thus non-differentiable. For optimization problems that occur in statistics it often needs to be approximated by a smooth function that is close to the maximum of the set. A smooth maximum, for example, g(x 1, x 2, …, x n) = log( exp(x 1) + exp(x 2) + … + exp(x n) )
In particular, one can no longer talk about the limit of a function at a point, but rather a limit or the set of limits at a point. A function is continuous at a limit point p of and in its domain if and only if f(p) is the (or, in the general case, a) limit of f(x) as x tends to p. There is another type of limit of a function, namely the ...
Given a sequence of distributions , its limit is the distribution given by [] = []for each test function , provided that distribution exists.The existence of the limit means that (1) for each , the limit of the sequence of numbers [] exists and that (2) the linear functional defined by the above formula is continuous with respect to the topology on the space of test functions.
In multivariable calculus, an iterated limit is a limit of a sequence or a limit of a function in the form , = (,), (,) = ((,)),or other similar forms. An iterated limit is only defined for an expression whose value depends on at least two variables. To evaluate such a limit, one takes the limiting process as one of the two variables approaches some number, getting an expression whose value ...
The loop is: reinforcing if, after going around the loop, one ends up with the same result as the initial assumption. balancing if the result contradicts the initial assumption. Or to put it in other words: reinforcing loops have an even number of negative links (zero also is even, see example below) balancing loops have an odd number of ...