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External economies of scale result from an increase in the productivity of an entire industry, region, or economy due to factors outside of an individual company. There are three sources of external economies of scale: input sharing, labor market pooling, and knowledge spillovers (Marshall, 1920). [1]
Labor pooling and matching: Agglomerating effects, such as an increase in population and therefore, human capital, arguably help improve matching within the economy, e.g. employees with employers, suppliers with buyers, and so on. [2]
The theory states that concentrating industries in specific regions creates several advantages. For one, greater economic activity occurs when many firms cluster in one area. In turn, this creates agglomeration spillovers which increases the total factor productivity of firms in the same county since they are all competing for the top spot.
Pull factors towards urban areas include expansion of economic opportunity and the infrastructure of cities as administrative centers [2] [7] Shandra recognizes the relationship between push and pull factors, arguing that rural conditions, specifically environmental scarcity, cause decreasing income, decreased stability, and increased health ...
Economic policy is often implemented at the urban level thus economic policy is often tied to urban policy (McCann 2001:3). Urban problems and public policy tie into urban economics as the theme relates urban problems, such as poverty or crime, to economics by seeking to answer questions with economic guidance.
Urban geography includes different other fields in geography such as the physical, social, and economic aspects of urban geography. The physical geography of urban environments is essential to understand why a town is placed in a specific area, and how the conditions in the environment play an important role with regards to whether or not the ...
Economic restructuring is used to indicate changes in the constituent parts of an economy in a very general sense. [1] In the western world, it is usually used to refer to the phenomenon of urban areas shifting from a manufacturing to a service sector economic base.
Measures for urban sprawl in Europe: upper left the Dispersion of the built-up area (DIS), upper right the weighted urban proliferation (WUP). The term urban sprawl was often used in the letters between Lewis Mumford and Frederic J. Osborn, [17] firstly by Osborn in his 1941 letter to Mumford and later by Mumford, generally condemning the waste of agricultural land and landscape due to ...