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Interleukin 21 (IL-21) is a protein that in humans is encoded by the IL21 gene. [5] [6] [7]Interleukin-21 is a cytokine that has potent regulatory effects on cells of the immune system, including natural killer (NK) cells and cytotoxic T cells that can destroy virally infected or cancerous cells.
Treg cells can be a source of IL-10 and TGF-β and therefore they can play a role in T cell exhaustion. [70] Furthermore, T cell exhaustion is reverted after depletion of Treg cells and blockade of PD1. [71] T cell exhaustion can also occur during sepsis as a result of cytokine storm.
Pathogen-specific T SCM cells have been identified in a number of studies of human acute and chronic infections caused by viruses, bacteria and parasites. The presence of T SCM might be essential for the control of persisting infections, in which effector T cells undergo exhaustion and need to be restored; this was supported by the evidence of a negative correlation between the severity of ...
In Th17 response probably NFATc2 plays a key role since mice with NFATc2 knockout show reduction in RORγ as well as in IL-17A, IL-17F, and IL-21. Treg cells are the only exceptions to the NFAT:AP-1 complex formation since after their TCR stimulation NFAT binds to SMAD3 instead of AP-1.
T-cell function decline begins with the progressive involution of the thymus, which is the organ essential for T-cell maturation. This decline in turn reduces IL-2 production [28] [29] and reduction/exhaustion on the number of thymocytes (i.e. immature T cells), thus reducing peripheral naïve T cell output.
These cells present early in the tissue have higher expression of some genes typical for T RM and at the peak of the T cell response, local T cell population expresses more than 90% of the T RM gene signature. [22] This shows that differentiation process of T RM cells starts early during immune response. [9]
Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is a protein that inhibits the synthesis of a number of cytokines, including IFN-gamma, IL-2, IL-3, TNF, and GM-CSF produced by activated macrophages and by helper T cells. In structure, IL-10 is a protein of about 160 amino acids that contains four conserved cysteines involved in disulphide bonds. [ 33 ]
CD1–restricted T cells produce T H 1, IFN-γ and TNF-α cytokines and are cytolytic. They can induce TNF-α dependent dentritic cells maturation. Many group 1 CD1–restricted T cells are autoreactive, and autoreactivity is enhanced by stimulation through pattern recognition receptors . CD1a-restricted T cells are among the most frequent self ...