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The 4–20 mA convention was born in the 1950s out of the earlier highly successful 3–15 psi pneumatic control signal standard, when electronics became cheap and reliable enough to emulate the older standard electrically. The 3–15 psi standard had the same features of being able to power some remote devices, and have a "live" zero.
= [4] for four-point bending test where the loading span is 1/3 of the support span (rectangular cross section) = [5] for three-point bending test (rectangular cross section) in these formulas the following parameters are used:
In general, exact solutions for cantilever plates using plate theory are quite involved and few exact solutions can be found in the literature. Reissner and Stein [7] provide a simplified theory for cantilever plates that is an improvement over older theories such as Saint-Venant plate theory.
A flow in manifold can be represented by a channel network model. A multi-scale parallel channel networks is usually described as the lattice network using analogy with the conventional electric circuit methods. [4] [5] [6] A generalized model of the flow distribution in channel networks of planar fuel cells. [6]
[4] [5] In recent years Wang [6] [7] unified all the main existing models and developed a most completed theory and design tool. The total rate of heat transfer between the hot and cold fluids passing through a plate heat exchanger may be expressed as: Q = UA∆Tm where U is the Overall heat transfer coefficient , A is the total plate area, and ...
Fractionation at total reflux. The Fenske equation in continuous fractional distillation is an equation used for calculating the minimum number of theoretical plates required for the separation of a binary feed stream by a fractionation column that is being operated at total reflux (i.e., which means that no overhead product distillate is being withdrawn from the column).
Commensurate lines are transmission lines that are all the same electrical length, but not necessarily the same characteristic impedance (Z 0).A commensurate line circuit is an electrical circuit composed only of commensurate lines terminated with resistors or short- and open-circuits.
A residual-current device (RCD), residual-current circuit breaker (RCCB) or ground fault circuit interrupter (GFCI) [a] is an electrical safety device, more specifically a form of Earth-leakage circuit breaker, that interrupts an electrical circuit when the current passing through line and neutral conductors of a circuit is not equal (the term residual relating to the imbalance), therefore ...