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If the extraterrestrial solar radiation is 1,367 watts per square meter (the value when the Earth–Sun distance is 1 astronomical unit), then the direct sunlight at Earth's surface when the Sun is at the zenith is about 1,050 W/m 2, but the total amount (direct and indirect from the atmosphere) hitting the ground is around 1,120 W/m 2. [6]
The SI unit of irradiance is watts per square metre (W/m 2 = Wm −2). The unit of insolation often used in the solar power industry is kilowatt hours per square metre (kWh/m 2). [12] The Langley is an alternative unit of insolation. One Langley is one thermochemical calorie per square centimetre or 41,840 J/m 2. [13]
The solar constant includes radiation over the entire electromagnetic spectrum. It is measured by satellite as being 1.361 kilo watts per square meter (kW/m 2) at solar minimum (the time in the 11-year solar cycle when the number of sunspots is minimal) and approximately 0.1% greater (roughly 1.362 kW/m 2) at solar maximum.
watt per square metre, per metre W/m 3: M⋅L −1 ⋅T −3: Radiant exposure: H e: joule per square metre J/m 2: M⋅T −2: Radiant energy received by a surface per unit area, or equivalently irradiance of a surface integrated over time of irradiation. This is sometimes also called "radiant fluence". Spectral exposure: H e,ν [nb 3] joule ...
watt per square metre per hertz W⋅m −2 ⋅Hz −1: M⋅T −2: Radiosity of a surface per unit frequency or wavelength. The latter is commonly measured in W⋅m −2 ⋅nm −1. This is sometimes also confusingly called "spectral intensity". J e,λ [nb 4] watt per square metre, per metre W/m 3: M⋅L −1 ⋅T −3: Radiant exitance: M e ...
where Pd is the power density in watts per square meter (one W/m 2 is equal to 0.1 mW/cm 2), H 2 = the square of the value of the magnetic field in amperes RMS squared per meter squared, E 2 = the square of the value of the electric field in volts RMS squared per meter squared. [6]
The red curve in the graph shows that photons around 610 nm (orange-red) have the highest amount of photosynthesis per photon. However, because short-wavelength photons carry more energy per photon, the maximum amount of photosynthesis per incident unit of energy is at a longer wavelength, around 650 nm (deep red).
Radiative forcing is defined in the IPCC Sixth Assessment Report as follows: "The change in the net, downward minus upward, radiative flux (expressed in W/m 2) due to a change in an external driver of climate change, such as a change in the concentration of carbon dioxide (CO 2), the concentration of volcanic aerosols or the output of the Sun." [3]: 2245
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