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Electrostatic force caused by electrical potential gradient—cations like protons H + tend to diffuse down the electrical potential, anions in the opposite direction. These two gradients taken together can be expressed as an electrochemical gradient, providing energy for abiogenic synthesis.
where ε r is the dielectric constant of the dispersion medium, ε 0 is the permittivity of free space (C 2 N −1 m −2), η is dynamic viscosity of the dispersion medium (Pa s), and ζ is zeta potential (i.e., the electrokinetic potential of the slipping plane in the double layer, units mV or V).
The fact that the force (and hence the field) can be calculated by summing over all the contributions due to individual source particles is an example of the superposition principle. The electric field produced by a distribution of charges is given by the volume charge density ρ ( r ) {\displaystyle \rho (\mathbf {r} )} and can be obtained by ...
Lightning — powerful natural electrostatic discharge produced during a thunderstorm. Lightning's abrupt electric discharge is accompanied by the emission of light. Noise and electromagnetic interference — Unwanted and usually random disturbance in an electrical signal.
They estimated the total free energy of mixing as a sum of mixing entropy terms and mean-field electrostatic interactions in a Debye-Hückel approximation. Veis and Aranyi suggested to extend this model with an electrostatic aggregation step in which charge-paired symmetrical soluble aggregates are formed, followed by phase separation into ...
The charge of the resulting ions is a major factor in the strength of ionic bonding, e.g. a salt C + A − is held together by electrostatic forces roughly four times weaker than C 2+ A 2− according to Coulomb's law, where C and A represent a generic cation and anion respectively. The sizes of the ions and the particular packing of the ...
Non-covalent interactions can be classified into different categories, such as electrostatic, π-effects, van der Waals forces, and hydrophobic effects. [ 3 ] [ 2 ] Non-covalent interactions [ 4 ] are critical in maintaining the three-dimensional structure of large molecules, such as proteins and nucleic acids .
A scenario is a set of related concepts pertinent to the origin of life (abiogenesis), such as the iron-sulfur world. Many alternative abiogenesis scenarios have been proposed by scientists in a variety of fields from the 1950s onwards in an attempt to explain how the complex mechanisms of life could have come into existence. These include ...